Improving Your Reading in
All School Subjects
This page contains information about reading in various school subjects: a. science b. math c. history d. geography e. literature f. poetry. Scroll down the page to locate the topic of interest although older and/or mature students may need practice and information about all.
Your speed of reading and type of reading (enjoying reading, skimming, scanning, reading for information, or rereading) depends upon your purpose. Reading for enjoyment is a lot different than reading a textbook for the purpose of remembering information for a test.
Objective: TSW identify different types of reading and understand how to read effectively for their purpose. TSW learn to alter their purpose to fit the type of reading that they need to do.
The teacher may want to concentrate on some of the following skills if meeting the above objective. These skills can be found elsewhere on this Web. Practice sheets for these skills can be found in the file.
Skills on this page include: a. improving vocabulary b. cause and effect c. main idea d. details e. diagrams, graphs, charts and graphs f. sequencing g. purpose h. identify plot and central theme i. characterization j. viewpoints
Lesson: Reading for the purpose of understanding the text
Most school subjects require their own specialized vocabularies. These are words which carry special meaning in a particular subject field, and without which there would be little understanding or successful study.
There are two types of specialized words:
1. Words which are a part of your everyday vocabulary, but have specialized meanings in a particular subject area.
2. Highly technical words which are used extensively in one field.
Look at the first group of words. Think of the word "principal" as an example. No doubt you know this to mean the person in school who has the highest rank. In math, it means a capital sum of money which is borrowed at interest.
The word "axes" might mean plural of ax in English. In math, it is the plural of axis - the straight line passing through a body which revolves upon it.
In social studies, culture is the ability to appreciate good art and music; but in science, culture is a cultivation of micro-organisms, as bacteria, tissues, or fungi.
Here are some science samples of the second group of words: altimeter, amplitude, calorie, distillation, and inertia. In social studies, you have continental, shelf, tundra, and marine. In math, you hve exponent, coefficient, and axiom.
When you come to a word with a special meaning, stop and look it up in the glossary or dictionary.
Reading in Science
Science, like other subjects in school, requires a variety of reading skills if you are to achieve the highest levels of understanding. Not only will you be using the common reading skills, but it will be necessary to learn and practice the special reading skills assocaiated with this subject.
Science writers use several different methods of writing their materials. Become acquainted with these patterns and learn to identify them. Once you are able to do this, it will be easy to employ the correct skill to gain the most from your reading. The most frequently used patterns include:
1. The grouping or classification method
2. The problem solving method
3. The process method
4. The cause and effect method
5. The statement of fact method
6. The experimental method
Seldom do you find and author using one writing method in his scientific discussion. Gererally, he will use several patterns of development which may complicate your reading unless you are able to quickly identify each style. Once you can identify the method, yo can rapidly change your reading approach to suit that of the pattern.
The grouping or classification method:
In this method, the central idea is emphasized in the topic sentence, followed by a consistent pattern of developing the what, how, and the thinking to arrive at the why. Information is given concerning certain groups of objects, processes, and living things which belong or catalogued.
Skills needed in reading this type of science material include:
a. The ability to understand important groups within a larger classification.
b. Being able to distinguish between differences and noting similarites between classes. (details)
Activity using the story "Rocks"
1. Skim the main headings to find the main topic/topics and the smaller classifications.
2. Read the selection as a whole and note differences and likenesses between the classifications.
3. Find the "technical words" that you would need to understand this article.
Rocks
Minerals, either singly or in association, make up the earth's crust. In rocks, minerals exist separately and not in chemical combinations. Nor are minerals in various specimens of the same class or rock identical in kind or amount. They are locked together in countless combinations dependent upon such factors as the proportion of the minerals, the chemical structure, and the history of the rock since its orgin. Consequently, the total number of kinds of rocks is large. The many kinds can be grouped in the three general classes: a. igneous, b. sedimentary, and c. metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are those whcih have been solidified from liquid rock. Although they are alike in their original formation, they still are of great variety and may be grouped in several different ways: a. extrusive, b. instrusive c. acid. These groupings are made on the basis of their important minerals. Igneous rocks are mostly compct, are not porous, and are resistent to erosion.
Sedimentary rocks are those which have been deposited mainly as sediment by wind and streams and put down by bodies of water such as lakes or the sea. They may have been derived from materials which have been rolled about by waves like sand or gravel; or like clay, suspended in water; or, like lime, which is carried in dissolved form. Gererally, the sediments are deposited according to their size and weight and tend to accumulate in beds of similar material. It appears that the process by which the material has been deposited was interrupted many times. This accounts for the layers, or stratification, found in formations. Hardened groups of sedimentary rock include: a. sandstone, b. shale, and c. limestone.
Sandstone is composed of mainly sand formed by the washing of waves of ancient seas and deposited in shallow waters along their shores. Acting as a cement, clay or lime filtered through the sand, forming it into rock. If the binding agent was of poor quality, the sand particles held together loosely. The resulting mass would disintegrate rapidly upon exposure to the elements. If the lime or clay cement were of good quality, large beds of hard, durable sandstone would result.
Shale is ea consolidated mass of mud, clay, or silt. It may contain lime which acts as a cement, or it may be hardened by pressure exerted by large rock masses. Shale usually disintegrates rapidly when exposed to the elements and becomes clay soil. Clay is composed of small grains and pores. It is, therefore, an insoluble rock and hinders movement of underground water.
Limestone is a rock produced by pressure on the precipitates of lime and shells in sea water. Some limestones are soft and porous such as that found in chalk. Others are compact and hard as that found in flint. Unlike most rocks, limestone is readily dissolved in water and may, in time, develop large caverns such as those of Mammoth Cave and the Carlsbad Caverns.
Metamorhpic rocks are derived from rocks of any other process of change. Most common of these processes are pressure, heat, and the cementing action of percolating underground waters. Some rocks of this classification have been formed through slow processes created by the alteration of underground waters, while others have developed through rapid change such as might be caused in the folding or bending of the earth's surface. In some rocks, the change has been so swift and so great as to produce minerals not found in the original rock. Many of our valuable minerals have been formed in this way. In others, the process of change cementing, crystallization, or rearangement of crystals have provided important differences in structure.
There are vast areas of rocks of great age in several parts of the earth. No doubt, some were originally igneous, others sedimentary. Whatever their origin, they have been subjected, during the long progress of geological time, to deforming processes. In some regions, these processes have been repeated more than once. As a result, the rocks of these regions have been so highly metamorphosed that they have been largely recrystallized.
The problem-solving method is very logical in nature. This type of material is very easy to read. All you have to do is understand a. the problem, b. what was done about it, and c. the final result.
The process method may be difficult to understand because most of the material is of an interpretative nature. In addition, most of the information is shown in diagrams, graphs, and charts. You are constantly required to use more than the common reading skills used every day. Demands are made upon your mind to move from one point of reference to another in the text, transferring your thought processes from one type of material to another rapidly and without lose of comprehension. It is not desirable here, to skim. This is one type of reading where rereading is common. Use these skills in this type of reading:
1. Preview the main headings and subheadings. This sets the total picture in your mind.
2. Read the introductory passage, studying all diagrams and their labled parts.
3. Read the material, section by section, referring to all diagrams and other graphic materials as they are noted. Think about each sentence or concept. Do not continue until you understand.
4. After you have completed reading one section, ask yourself questions. Explain what you have just learned. If you cannot answer your own questions, reread that particular portion of the assignment. Continue throughout the remainder of the reading selection.
The cause and effect method is one of the easiest type of science reading materials to understand. The writer indicates the cause, or causes, of certain scientific phenomena and then proceeds to discuss their effects. Because of its simplicity, it is possible to skim this writing method. However, be careful to identify all causes and effects.
Statement of fact method is a simple pattern. It consists of nothing more than directly stating scientific fact. do not be misled by the apparent simplicity of the definition because this method is not necessarily an easy one to read. Perhaps, for some students, it may be the most difficult. The arrangement of main ideas and details is left up to reader for organization. Because of the difficulty, this material should not be skimmed.
One of the most common methods of writing scientific matter is called the experimental pattern. In this the writer provides you with exact instructions to perform a specific experiment. Each step of the experiment must be carried out exactly as it is described. You must read correctly or your experiment is doomed due to poor reading skills.
Reading in Math
Have you ever complained that arithmetic, algebra, and geometry were difficult for you and that you had trouble with these. If you have, you are no different than many students. If you knew how to read and study these differently, you might feel better about these. Very special skills are needed to read and study math.
You use entirely different kinds of vocabulary, two kinds of symbols - word symbols and math symbols. All word problems contain these two kinds of languages. Math symbols and words such as: circle, diameter, ratio, and pi. They illustrate the technical aspect of math.
Its vocabulary is probably more limited and exacting than those of other subjects. Words and symbols carry exact meanings. There can be no straying from the meaning. Sentences are brief and to the point. Each section of a problem is related to the remainder. Words and phrases such as since, therefore, compare, etc. call for the complete, undivided attention of the reader. math material cannot be skimmed. Math material has to be read slowly and thoroughly. Often, a reader has to reread the entire problem or works through sections of the problem in sequence.
In addition to the specialized words of math, you will also discover many words take on new meanings: operation, constant, positive, and converse.
Special attention must be paid to the math structure. Each problem is packed with meaning. Word problems are concentrated problems. Each word and symbol is important. Skipping an unfamiliar word spells doom.
The reading of math differs in still another area. Once you have read the problem, you must do something with the meaning you extracted from the words. This process requires exact interpretation and careful reasoning.
There are many skills used in reading math:
1. Read the problem carefully. Be sure you know the meaning of every word. Reread if necessary.
2. Give special attention to the direction or question asked.
3. Mentally plan the steps you will follow in arriving at the solution.
4. Jot down symbols, numbers, or formula you will use in working out each step.
5. Compute the problem.
6. Check your solution.
Reading graphs is an important math skill.
Just as maps help you understand places, diagrams help you understand processes, graphs help you fit a set of numbers together in pictorial manner so that you can understand the data more easily. Graphs appear in science, math, and social studies. You will find graphs convey lots of daily information: weather, sports, stocks, etc. To read a graph:
1. Determine the kind of graph: bar, circle, line, pictograph.
2. Read the title carefully.
3. Read the graph's cation, its labels, and understand what it is trying to convey.
4. Make sure you can interpret the importance of the graph as a whole. What is its purpose? What conclusions can you draw about the data?
*See the file for worksheets on all types of graphs.
Reading tables:
Numerical tables present a graphic representation of a series of numbers related to one idea in a systematic manner. The table is important to both the writer and the reader in that in presents information in a compact, informative way and it occupies very little space. Generally, tables are not as interesting as graphs and are considerably more difficult to read. However, they do have the advantage of being more accurate.
Activities:
1. Have a student read a paragraph and have students listen for the information to recall. Now show the blown up graph over the overhead. Look for the information. Which is easier to find information quickly? The table, of course, is much easier.
2. There are worksheets in the file.
Reading in History
If you were to examine a number of history or social studies textbooks, you would find them loaded with reading problems. Often ideas are presented in such rapid-fire order that it is difficult for some students to understand. The por reader has difficulty in making sense out of much of the material. Perhaps this is the reason some people have developed a dislike for history and geography. Of course, the good reader has no such problems.
Take a good look at the social studies vocabulary. That too, causes difficulty for many students. Textbooks are overflowing with strange names of people, places, and events. Then, to make matters worse, much of the vocabulary is taken from other languages.
You will also use the common reading skills in history. You will preview, skim, recall, find main ideas, and identify detail. The special skills you will need are:
1. Being able to follow the sequence of events
2. Being able to make comparisons
3. Being able to remember dates
4. Being able to use maps, charts, globes, and an atlas
5. Being able to associate dates with events (cause and effect skill)
6. Being able to distinguish between fact and opionion (interpretation of past events)
7. Being able to use source books
Social studies material is easier to read than science material because most of it is written in narrative or story form. History is based upon cause and effect events. There would be no history, if there had not been causes for effects. History is nothing more than a series of situations which had at their base a cause which provided certain effects. A student must be able to grasp the relationship between reasons for action and their effects.
Reading Geography
Geography will be easier for you if you know something about the purpose of this valuable subject. The primary purpose of a study of geography is to enlarge your geographical experiences. This is done in most textbooks by:
1. Helping you interpret pictures, maps, and written materials.
2. Showing you ways of living in other countries.
3. Helping you understand what influences other countries have had on the beginning of our own country and their continuing influences.
4. Showing you that other countries have the same problems and ambitions even though their country and peoples are different.
5. Helping you understand that the earth is a global community.
Textbooks generally do this by pictures, maps, and written materials.
Locating information by using important tools like maps, charts, and globes use specific skills:
1. It is necessary to understand the map's symbols. Unfortunately, all maps do not contain the same set of symbols, so it is necessary to check all keys if you are to correctly interpret the meaning of the little black dots, shaded colors, and other key symbols. These are found in the maps legend usually located in the corner of the map.
2. Now that you understand the legend and its symbols, you will find yourself referrring back and forth from the legend to the map making rapid interpretations of the graphic material.
3. Once you have made the proper interpretation, think about the map's purpose and the significance of the information you have gathered.
Before reading the following selections:
1. Skim (preview) the material to discover the main purpose of the writer.
2. Note the major subheadings, if any.
During your reading:
1. Read to see if the writer really explains the headings.
2. Be able to identify the main points and supporting details
3. Give special attention to place names and unfamiliar names
4. If charts and maps are given, study them in relation to the text.
After reading:
1. Skim the material to see that you have not omitted anything of importance.
2. Check or underline important facts.
Reading in Literature
One can hardly imagine a time when there was no written language. Beginning with a few simple symbols, written language has grown and developed until today there are few thoughts which cannot be expressed in writing. If you are to genuinely appreciate great literature, you must learn to use the several skills necessary in obtaining the greatest appreciation of this material.
Literature may be classified into several different classifications. Understanding these will make it easier for you to use the particular skills required to effectively read each.
General Classifications: All literature may be divided into two broad groups depending on their form: prose and poetry. Classified according to purpose, you find fiction and nonfiction. There is some overlapping of these main divisions. Some poetry, for example, seems more like prose, and some writing which is primarily fiction may be so factual that it appears to be nonfiction.
1. Fiction - prose stories that are based upon the imagination of the author and are written chiefly to entertain. Forms of fiction include: short story, novel, tall tale, novelette.
2. Nonfiction - stories that are anything else
Fiction
Fiction presents lifelife situations in the form of imaginative stories. A novel is a book-length story; a story which can be read in a single sitting is called a short story; a novelette is a story longer than a short story but shorter than a novel; and if a story is compressed into a thousand or fifteen hundred words, it is called a short, short story.
Characteristics of a novel:
1. It has greater length
2. It contains a definite plot, or plan, which guides the action
3. Generally, there are a great number of characters.
4. Characters are described to detail
5. Numerous incidents are introduced, then blended together.
6. Detail is complete. Little is left to the reader's imagination.
Skills needed to read a novel:
1. Take your time. Novels are meant to be enjoyed.
2. Be careful to identify the plot. Relate all activities to that central theme.
3. Do not confuse characters. Most are important to further the writer's purpose.
4. Relate all incidents to the central thread of the novel.
5. Try to visualize or "see" the characters and the parts they play.
Characteristics of a short story:
1. The story is briefly told. Characters and action are seen in more limited detail than in the novel.
2. You will find fewer characters and scenes in the novel.
3. The plot generally is related to a single incident.
4. Because of its shorter lenght, the writer gets directly to the point.
Skills needed to read the short story:
1. Because of its literary form, it is possible to read this material more rapidly than the novel.
2. Unlike the novel where the author interprets the complet setting for you, the short story writer expects the reader to make the interpretation.
3. You must think of hidden meanings ("read between the lines")
4. Use your imagination as you read. You are expected to fill in the gaps left by the author.
Nonfiction
Nonfiction deals primarily with facts. It is material that is usually informational. Although it may be entertaining, it relates actual rather than imagined experiences. Nonfiction includes drama, biography, autobiography, article, and poetry. These include the same skills needed as in reading a novel. Biography - the life story- or part of the life story of an individual. When the author writes about himself, it is an autobiography.
Some literature experts speak of a kind of nonfiction writing called an essay. Here the writer attempts to put into words some idea of a subject of interest to him. This is now sometimes referred to as an article. An article is writing such as history, travel accounts, opinions of public life, or similar ideas. To read these: try to understand the writer's viewpoint and purpose.
Reading Poetry
Please see this excellent website for reading poetry: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/features/jan-june00/poetry.html